Uneven democracies of energy: Institutional pathways and justice claims in community energy transitions in Germany and Sweden

Community energy (CE) is increasingly discussed as a democratic alternative to centralized energy systems, yet its forms and effects vary substantially across national contexts. This article compares CE developments in Germany and Sweden, two countries with ambitious climate agendas but contrasting energy-governance arrangements. The paper examines how institutional frameworks, political cultures, and infrastructure regimes shape opportunities for participation, ownership, and justice. The analysis draws on six illustrative cases, combining document analysis, published case studies, project materials, and fieldwork-based insights, assessed through the lenses of energy democracy and energy justice. The findings show that CE is neither inherently democratic nor inclusive. Its transformative potential depends on supportive legal frameworks, intermediary support, accessible business models, and explicit attention to social justice. The article concludes with policy recommendations for more inclusive CE systems across comparable European contexts.